Abstract
In the paper I will present a look at pretend play activity in the pre-school period of childhood, and its consequences for the process of identity formation in adolescence, through L. S. Vygotsky’s and E H. Erikson’s theories. Both of them are crucial for socio–cultural paradigm in psychology. Furthermore I want to take up an issue of virtual reality (e. g. computer games, television, Internet) as a playground and to analyse some of its possible developmental functions.In the first part of the paper I reconstruct the most important aspects of transformation in the sphere of higher mental functions in the zone of proximal development of the child. Increasing primacy of meaning and its imaginative representation over sensory perception of the real object in play activity is the core of this reformulation. This lands to proceeding ability to operate with pure meaning of the word and results with using memory at will, active imagination, ability to differentiate the imaginary from the real and also to conform to social rules. Then I would like to present E. H. Erikson’s view on the play activity. The pretend play gives possibility to find some accepted socio-cultural forms to realise impulses that can’t be realised directly - in reality - because of the cultural prohibition. At the same time child participates in negotiating and explaining with present adults the meaning of the social rules and roles what makes sublimation and socialising in play possible. The process is of significant consequence to the later identity formation through adolescence. In the third part of the paper I approach to the issue of virtual reality considering its influence on the pre-school child development through the theories by Vygotsky and Erikson and emphasising rather dangers and risks than possible benefits.

Abstract
An increasing number of erderly people will spend the last years of their life in sheltered facilities (e.g., old age nursing homes) because of the extending of life-expectancy in the industrialised countries and the evolution of family structure. Andersen & Newman model underlines the importance of Predisposing Factors (age, gender, school attendance, nationality), Need Factors (disability, dementia, loss of self-independence) and Enabling Factors (social support, family support) in determining the causes for hospitalisation.The aim of this qualitative survey is to verify the validity of the model, particularly considering attitude as one of the Predisposing Factors. We carried out a non-directive interview to 32 elderly people (age 79.06 ± 8.97; M = 16 and F = 16) divided in two groups; the first was made of individuals living at home, while the second group was made of individuals living in residential old age nursing homes. The analysis of interview contents showed some theme areas: old age nursing home characteristics; reasons for hospitalisation; family relationships; disease; image of institutionalised elderly people.The two groups gave different answers to those areas. Results showed the validity of Andersen & Newman model related to the attitude’s component among the Predisposing Factors applied to the studied sample. A negative attitude correlated to the fact of living in residential facilities emerged. Differences were found between individuals who live in such facilities (deprived of personal choice) and those who live at home and think of residential facilities as an ultimate possibility that they might eventually choose. Further quantitative research to test Andersen & Newman model is needed to gather more exhaustive information about health care systems for the elderly.

Abstract
A survey on various public and private organizations dealing with treatment and rehabilitation of persons with disabilities throughout Italy was carried out; moreover, methods and techniques within the framework of sexuality was also investigated, since it relates to a wide range of disabilities. Our study showed that sex education is frequently hidden or even kept latent, when relating to persons with disabilities who live in public and private facilities or in their families. Sex education is not explicitly included in the main goals of educational programs.In the present study, sex education for persons with disabilities is approached from an innovative point of view. Indeed, disability problems are dealt with using case histories and practical applications of techniques along with educational theory. We collected personal accounts derived from interviews to mentally and physically disabled persons, parents of disabled children, and professional caregivers who work in this field. Survey data are interpreted from a phenomenological and qualitative point of view rather than from a statistical point of view. Consequently, results of our analysis provided us with the proper means to develop a Course of Sexual Education for Persons with Disabilities, Professional Educators and Parents. Together with the Course of Sexual Education, a psychometric test to measure inner sex identity (developed by Marta Olivetti Belardinelli in her research) will be administered to all participants, in order to understand how the course has affected psycho-affective maturity. Furthermore, assuming that sex identity is a cognitive organizer, sex education could represent an helpful instrument to improve individual’s mental skills, through the acquisition of affective intelligence.

Abstract
In order to adopt educational strategies based on continuous evaluation, teachers need assessment techniques which are scientifically valid and suitable to give information to be used in real school situations.Such techniques, however, need to be applied in a context of “subjective significance”, so that the objective results can be compared and correlated with the general and specific characteristics of each subject to be evaluated. Under such conditions, an educational test becomes a sophisticated evaluation tool, which offers useful information leading to the definition and evaluation of the educational program. The awareness of tests usefulness, and the ability to use the instruments in a more appropriate way represent a very relevant aspect of the school operator's professional profile. Among the problems often intervening in the evaluation process, particularly relevant is the possibility to adapt tools - created for pupils of a certain age level – also to pupils of other ages; moreover it is important to adapt assessment instruments to subjects belonging to socially deprived contexts. In the present paper, we report a few analyses on validity, reliability and functionality of three educational tests (Learning Strategies Questionnaire; Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire; Learning to Study Questionnaire). Those three tests were originally developed for adolescents: we now aim to verify their validity also on middle school pupils. Attention was focused especially on the first phase of assessment tools experimental control. Our basic assumption is that, in order to reach good achievement levels, students need to acquire skills to regulate their cognitive, motivational, volitional and affective processes; therefore, teachers need reliable instruments to evaluate pupils’ initial situation in such fields.The research sample was made of 200 middle school pupils, coming from 15 classes (6 pupils from the first year of school and 9 from the second year). The socio-economical conditions of families were prevalently low. Foreign pupils were included in the classes, in order to detect differences between Italian and foreign pupils. Results showed that, thanks to such tests, it is possible to obtain very useful information to define meta-cognitive competencies consolidated in behavios and mental processes of younger and socially disadvantaged students.

Abstract
The aim of this study is to present the theory, the structure and the psychometric characteristics of a test that controls for metalinguistic development in subjects aged 9 to 14 (the Mat-2, Metalinguistic ability test n.2). The first section describes the structure of the test, which is derived from an original set of four tasks designed by D. Hakes (Hakes, D., 1980, The Development of Metalinguistic Abilities. Berlin: Springer). A few Italian authors introduced a new component: a two-level-awareness metalinguistic analysis to explore language structure. At the first level, the individual may answer on purely intuitive grounds. This kind of response has been called linguistic (henceforth L), since it is based on the intuitive application of linguistic rules. At the second level, individuals are required to justify their responses on analytic and explicit grounds. The second type of response is properly metalinguistic (henceforth ML), since it intrinsically requires the use of language over and beyond language (hence the prefix “meta”). Overall, the test includes 6 subtests, Comprehension, Synonymy, Acceptability, Ambiguity, Grammatical Function and Phonemic Segmentation, and is now available in English and Spanish version. The term “Mat-2” refers to the existence of a “Mat-1” version for 4 to 6-year-old children. It is based on a similar theoretical assumption, which has been already validated and published. In the central section of the paper, some major results of psychometric studies are synthesized, namely: 0.norms for score interpretation for each age group; a.reliability coefficients for each subtest, either for L and ML scores or totals, which all appear satisfactory; b.cross-rater validity, obtained through correlations with a non verbal test, the Raven PM38, which all appear very significant; c.discrimination analysis, based on two significant variables: age and sex; the two variables refer to older children and women respectively, differing significantly in ML scores; d.factor analysis, which shows a clear-cut two-factor structure, consistent with L and ML scores dichotomy. This result apparently confirms the theoretical distinction between intuitive and implicit language processing, underlying the L answers, and the explicit, analytic language processing, required in ML answers. The relevance of this distinction appears once again in the sociolinguistic studies carried out through the Mat-2, where different types of Italian bilingual 5th graders (Italian-English, Italian-French, Italian-German types of bilingualism) have been compared to Italian monolinguals, matched by age, sociocultural background and intellectual development. Overall, bilinguals outperform monolinguals, and the most salient differences are typically represented by ML scores, that is to say the metalinguistic domain of the test.

Abstract
This study contributes to the validation of an original diagnostic task, the Vi.Di. Test, for the evaluation of diversity in childhood.The test exceeds, both in administration and response modality, some limits of traditional methods, which usually require verbal or graphic production based on skills levels and complex introspective abilities, especially in certain cultural context or clinical conditions.As stimulus-materials, we used caption illustrations where the main character (Tillo for males, Tilla for females) has a “big nose and an ugly look” and deals with everyday life situations. The child is required to develop a story about the main character using a non verbal multiple choice response.450 elementary school children, 230 females, 220 males, between 6 and 9 years of age took part to the research. Results highlighted a statistically significant choice distribution in 19 items out of 23. The image of a diversity-unconditioned character was found to be prevailing: Tillo and Tilla feel loved, their school achievement is good, just like relationships with their school-fellows and teacher and have very high expectations for their future social development. Therefore, responses that showed a main character who feels excluded, not loved, uncomfortable and need much attention might reflect uneasiness, especially in older groups. Only younger children groups, indeed, always give self-centred responses, while older children groups show a different attitude: they are more open towards their peers and more willing to share affection and feelings.“Negative” choices, indicating that the child feels more loved or less loved than the others, tend to decrease with age.Test situations that we considered as “normal” (that is, those situations that are more frequently chosen by children) actually appeared to be the most frequently chosen. Some factor, like developmental fears, are not discriminating. They are so widespread within this sample age that they cannot be considered as pathologies. The test proved to be a valid instrument to quantify qualitative dimensions that cannot be tested with common psychodiagnostic instruments. Moreover, results interpretation is extremely easy.

Abstract
The onset of menopause implies relevant psychophysiological changes in lifespan of women, often linked to disease, discomfort and reduced quality of life. To better understand attitudes and perceptions of this event, biological and sociological interpretative models are not sufficient, because of the relevant individual differences pertaining both to physical changes and psychological experience regarding normality and pathology of climaterium. Authors tried to integrate previous quantitative research with a qualitative approach aimed to study in depth the subjective conditions of women in menopause, and ascertain the possibility of really enhancing their quality of life in this critical phase, through a pharmacological and psychological therapy.The psychological condition of women who accept the end of fertility as a natural phase of lifespan is very different from that of other women who consider the climaterium as an illness to be medically treated. Thirty women in menopause (aged 45-62) participated in a qualitative interview about the use of drugs, attitude toward illness and therapies, perceived changes in personal and family life, particularly in the framework of sexuality. Qualitative analysis results suggested that the impact of medical therapies (as the Hormone Replacement Therapy) on women who perceive menopause as a pathological change in lifespan is very peculiar: symptoms acceptance is indeed reduced, overall concern about health and illness is greater, and psychophysiological changes associated to climaterium (including changes in sexuality) are experienced as more negative. Research data clearly showed that specific interventions both at medical and psychological level are needed to shift from perceiving the climaterium as an illness, or as an inevitable experience which negatively affects woman’s lifespan, to positively considering this transitional phase as an opportunity for women to enhance self care and improve their lifestyle.

Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative pathology of the CNS which causes a progressive and dangerous impairment of various cognitive functions, such as memory, attention and language. The disease also impairs the normal progression of daily life activities. So far, no proper drug to effectively treat or cure Alzheimer’s disease has been found. Therefore, rehabilitation interventions play an increasingly important role in slowing the disease progression.The present paper is an overview of the main approaches to cognitive rehabilitation of Alzheimer’s disease. Two types of interventions are presented: the first refers to “specific” techniques of cognitive activation which include strategies to treat memory deficits (memory training, subject performed task, vanishing cue, copy cue, mnemotecniques, visual imagery); the second type includes “aspecific” techniques which address larger domains (ROT, adaptation to reality, validation therapy, recall therapy, musical therapy, behavioural therapy, occupational therapy, external aids). Finally, we suggest the use of Instrumental Enrichment Program, developed by Reuven Feuerstein for rehabilitation of cognitively declining persons.